In Focus: Faye Glenn Abdellah’s Patient-Centered Approaches

For years, the existence and acceptance of nursing theories in different settings and aspects of nursing practice has transformed the profession in diverse ways both here and abroad. The utilization of such theories has provided the nursing community with specific knowledge and ways to enhance and develop skills and attitudes of nursing professionals in the practice of the profession. It has greatly helped in creating and sustaining our professional independence from the field of medicine by guiding our educational system, research methods and practice towards safe and quality care to patients (Marriner-Tomey, 1994; McLemore & Hill, 1965).The significance of studying nursing theories does not end with the benefits it may serve the profession in general. It also helps an individual, either a student or a nursing professional in several ways. An individual is able to develop critical thinking skills, able to differentiate values and hypotheses and able to find out purpose of functions in relation to the scope of practice of the nursing profession (Kozier, Erb, & Oliviere, 1995).In line with this, this paper attempts to analyze and evaluate a relevant nursing conceptual model authored by a renowned nurse theorist— Faye Glenn Abdellah, using the J. Fawcett’s Framework of Analysis and Evaluation of Conceptual Models of Nursing.Influenced by Virginia Henderson’s 14 principles of nursing, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Erik Erickson stages of development, Abdellah formulated her structural model with the goal of teaching and evaluating students and at the same time emphasize the need to create a body of knowledge exclusive to our profession that will help in gaining independence from the control of the medical profession  toward  patient-centered  care (Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 1998).Faye Glenn Abdellah authored the typology of 21 nursing problems which was initially published in the 1960 edition of Pat ient-Centered Approaches to Nursing. Since its initial appearance, the typology had major impact on the nursing profession as well as on the development of other nursing theories (Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 1998).Abdellah’s typology of 21 nursing problems is a conceptual model which describes the significant concerns of nursing instead of linking different relationships into phenomena. The conceptual model is mainly concerned with patient’s needs and the role of nurses in problem identification using a problem-solving approach. Abdellah’s work is classified under the nursing philosophy category in the sense that her work is based on analysis, rationalization, research and logical argument instead of using experiential methods. Logically speaking,Abdellah’s model can be described as inductive since she derived observations from previous studies which became the basis for her conceptualization. Philosophical statements are said to be based on opinions, arguments or propositions of different people. These statements are not experimental in nature because such statements based on goal, traditions and/or values cannot be tested for its correctness or wrongness (Marriner-Tomey, 1994).In  analyzing  and  evaluating  Abdellah’s  theory, her  work  cannot  be  separated  from  the  historical  background  where  the  conceptualization  of  the  21  nursing  problems  started.  It  was   in  the  1950s  when  the  nursing  profession  faced  a  lot  of  difficulties  arising  from  the  rapid   societal change and increasing demand for technological advancement. The methods and system used at that time  did not support and meet the demands of the rapid change thus creating a backlog in the nursing community.There was a lack of definition of nursing— its focus, scope and limitations especially that healthcare delivery to patients is mainly based on achieving institutional goals rather than meeting patient’s needs. The present system did not assist both the students and professionals in being attuned with the changes. Abdellah related this to the lack of scientific body of knowledge unique to the profession. That is why the formulation of the theory differentiated the practice of nursing from the practice of medicine emphasizing focus on 21 nursing problems that help patient in achieving state of wellness (Marriner-Tomey, 1994).Abdellah used the problem-solving approach in formulating the theory. She believes that a nurse should be able to identify and solve problems of patients in order to provide safe and quality care to patients. This identification of nursing problems, selection of data necessary to formulating and testing of interventions in assisting patient towards state of wellness closely resembles the nursing process. Abdellah pointed out that patients cannot receive quality care if the steps are done improperly. In my opinion, Abdellah’s approach is effective in the sense that the approach guarantees positive client response if the steps are specifically and carefully executed. This approach also improves a nursing professional skills and attitude by enhancing problem-solving abilities through identification of nursing problems in meeting the needs of the patient (Marriner-Tomey, 1994).Abdellah’s model includes four (4) fundamental concepts essential to nursing— person, environment, health and nursing. The first major concept is the person. The concept of person is described as people having physical, physiological and sociological needs. In her conceptual model, the person or patient is the main reason for the existence of nursing. However, this is quite contradicting since the typology of 21 nursing problems lacks holism. The model entails that a person returns to an improved state only by resolving each problem identified by a nursin g professional. It lacks holism in the sense that the patient or person which, is considered as a whole is not greater than the sum of it parts represented by his problems (Marriner-Tomey, 1994).Another major concept included in her theory is the concept of environment. This concept is the least conferred  and least emphasized in her theory. This is mentioned limitedly in problem number 17. The model explains that the patient more often than not interrelate and act in response to the environment. It also explains that the nurse is also a part of the patient’s environment thus the nurse takes responsibility in making the environment conducive for restoration of health. Abdellah also states that environment is also the home and community from where the patient comes from that is why Abdellah emphasized the need to broaden our scope in identifying problems and not limit our scope in the hospital setting (Potter & Perry, 1993).The third concept is health. Abdellah discussed hea lth as a state without illness. It is defined as a state without unmet needs and no anticipated or actual impairment. This is clearly exemplified in the list of 21 nursing problems. Abdellah also advocates holistic approach to patient-centered care and furthering the relevance of environmental factors in the concept of health (Potter & Perry, 1993).The last major concept is nursing. The concept of nursing is an essential element of her writing. In her model, nursing is defined as provision of service to individuals and families; therefore to society. It is mainly providing service to or for the patient or providing information that will significantly assist the patient in restoring health and alleviating impairment. Abdellah therefore viewed nursing as a helping profession (Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 1998)..Although Abdellah’s work provided a comprehensive meaning of the four major concepts, there are no statements in Abdellah’s writing tha t states any direct relationships among the four concepts. Each concept was only defined implicitly and no relational statements can be made out of it. The model is mainly concerned on development of a unique body of knowledge, which is nursing, through which identification of nursing problems and utilization of the problem-solving approach assists patients in meeting their needs.The model is said to have limited concepts and is only presented in a structural list. After Abdellah’s work has been published, her formulation of the 21 nursing problems has been a helpful tool in the areas of nursing practice, nursing research and nursing education (Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 1998).In our nursing practice, Abdellah’s typology of 21 nursing problems has helped nursing professionals in dealing with patient care in an orderly and well-structured manner. In using this typology, a nursing professional, with the problem-solving approach, is able to id entify patient’s problems, plan for his care and implement nursing interventions for the identified problem in a scientific manner.This problem-solving method has transformed our practice as we attempt to focus our attention to the client himself rather than focus on client’s medical condition which is more of the objective of the medical profession. Nursing professionals have also learned and understood the rationale behind each and every action we deliver to the client (Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 1998).Abdellah’s work has also provided significant changes in the area of nursing research as well since her work is basically based on research too. Many theories have been developed since the introduction of Abdellah’s work. The present nursing diagnosis classification system is presumed to be an outgrowth of this typology. This nursing philosophy continues to be a preferred basis of nursing studies at present (Sigma Theta Tau In ternational Honor Society of Nursing, 1998).Nursing education also benefited from Abdellah’s work. As previously explained, there was a lack of scientific body unique to our profession that hindered our independence from the medical profession. Abdellah’s work presented such unique body and gave the nursing profession a chance to come out of the control of the medical model. Gaining professional autonomy has helped the nursing community project a professional identity that has been widely accepted all over the world   (Potter & Perry, 1993).Abdellah’s nursing philosophy brings about nursing activities that meet not only client’s needs but of the society as well in the long run if each goal is carefully achieved through the problem-solving approach making this nursing philosophy socially significant. Abdellah’s work is socially significant because the 21 nursing problems elicit relevant nursing actions that lead to the improvement and restoration of client’s health status which in turn aids the client in resuming activities of daily living increasing his productivity level thus benefiting the society   (Potter & Perry, 1993).In conclusion, Abdellah’s typology of 21 nursing problems remedied the predicaments faced by the profession in earlier times. It has helped teach and evaluate student’s competency through its formulation. It provided a means of gaining autonomy from the practice of medicine through the creation of a scientific body of knowledge unique to nursing.Abdellah’s work is very straightforward and uncomplicated. It explicitly described the major concepts essential to nursing such as nursing itself, nursing problems and the problem-solving approach through which the problems can be intervened. The concepts of health, person and environment which are now included in the scope of nursing are also implied.The goals of this model vary but all are directed to affect nursing. The extensive goal of this model is to generally elicit positive transformation in nursing education while its subgoals would include providing a scientific basis for practice and a tool in evaluating student’s capacity and competency (McLemore & Hill, 1965).To date, Abellah did not only meet the goal of her work. Her work has also affected different aspects of nursing— nursing practice, nursing research and nursing education in general. As emphasized in this paper, Abdellah’s overall contribution to the body of nursing is the acquisition of professional autonomy and professional identity through the creation of the 21 nursing problems. Her problem-solving approach increases our assessment and critical-thinking skills needed in identifying client’s concerns to properly plan, select and implement our healthcare. It also enhances and promotes nurse-patient interaction as we make patients the central focus of care instead of focusing on the disease process (Parascandola, 1994).Nursing has been practiced as profession for more than a century. The profession was based merely on rules, concepts and experiences passed on by professionals to students. It was only in the advent of serious discussion and testing of theories that nursing has been established as a science. Through Abdellah’s work and the development of other relevant nursing theories, we have proven that our profession can stand by itself and achieve our goals towards patient-centered care (Parascandola, 1994).

Why I Own A Computer

Computers are capable of doing more things every year. There are many advantages to knowing how to use a computer, and it is important that everyone know how to use them properly. Using the information I have gathered, and my own knowledge from my 12 years of computer experience, I will explain the many advantages of owning a computer and how they important they are in your everyday life. I hope this helps others understand why computers and the Internet are so important to have access to. Webster’s New World Compact Dictionary defines a computer as â€Å"an electronic machine that performs rapid, complex calculations or compiles and correlates data† (Computer, 1995, p. 226). While this definition gives one a very narrow view of what a computer is capable of doing, it does describe the basic ideas of what I will expand upon. We have been living through an age of computers for a short while now, and there are already many people worldwide that are computer literate. According to Using Computers: A Gateway to Information World Wide Web Edition, over 250 million Personal Computers (PC’s) were in use by 1995, and one out of every three homes had a PC (Shelly, Cashman, & Waggoner, 1996,p138). Computers are easy to use when you know how they work and what the parts are. All computers perform the four basic operations of the information processing cycle: input, process, output, and storage. Data, any kind of raw facts, is required for the processing cycle to occur. Data is processed into useful information by the computer hardware. Most computer systems consist of a monitor, a system unit which contains the Central Processing Unit (CPU), a floppy-disk drive, a CD-ROM drive, speakers, a keyboard, a mouse, and a printer. Each component takes a part in one of the four operations. The keyboard and mouse are input devices I use to enter data into the computer. From there the data goes to the system unit where it is processed into useful information the computer can understand and work with. Next the processed data can be sent to storage devices or to output devices. Normally output is sent to the monitor where I can view it or stored on the hard-disk or to a floppy-disk located internal of the system unit. Output can also be printed out through the printer, or can be played through the speakers as sound depending on the form it takes after it is processed. Once I had grasped an understanding of the basic parts and operations of a computer, I then discovered how computers were going to make my life easier and more enjoyable. Being computer literate allows you to use many powerful software applications and utilities to do work for school, business, or pleasure. Microsoft is the current leading producer of many of these applications and utilities. Since Microsoft is the largest software producer it stands to reason most people including myself probably use one of their products on a daily basis. As for myself, I use a variety of software products from many different software vendors. Microsoft has also produced a software package called Microsoft Office that is very useful in creating reports, databases, spreadsheets, presentations, and other documents for school and work. Included in Microsoft Office, are Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Microsoft Word is a word processing program that makes creating professional looking documents such as announcements, resumes, letters, address books, and reports easy to do. I use Word everyday in my job. I write many letters and other forms of communications to my customers or fellow employees at Hewlett-Packard. Microsoft Excel, a spreadsheet program, has features for data organization, calculations, decision-making, and graphing. I find it very useful in making professional looking reports. I also use it for tracking my sales and income using its spreadsheet capabilities. Microsoft PowerPoint is â€Å"a complete presentation graphics program that allows you to produce professional looking presentations† (Shelly, Cashman, & Vermaat, 1996,p. 2). PowerPoint is flexible enough so that you can create electronic presentations, overhead transparencies, or even 35mm slides. I don t use this as much as the others, but I do use it when giving tours to students who visit Hewlett-Packard. When I using the Internet it allows me access to a vast resource of facts, knowledge, information, and entertainment that can help me do my work and have fun. According to Netscape Navigator 2 running under Windows 3. 1, â€Å"the Internet is a collection of networks, each of which is composed of a collection of smaller networks† (Shelly, Cashman, & Jordan, 1995, p. 12). Information can be sent over the Internet through communication lines in the form of graphics, sound, video, animation, and text. These forms of computer media are known as hypermedia. Hypermedia is accessed through hypertext links, which are pointers to the computer where the hypermedia is stored. The World Wide Web (WWW) is the collection of these hypertext links throughout the Internet. Each computer that contains hypermedia on the WWW is known as a Web site and has Web pages set up for users to access the hypermedia. Browsers such as Netscape allow me to â€Å"surf the net† and search for the hypermedia of their choice. I have found millions of examples of hypermedia on the Internet. While surfing I also found art, photos, information on business, the government, and colleges, television schedules, movie reviews, music lyrics, online news and magazines, sport sights of all kinds, games, books, and thousands of other hypermedia on the WWW. Through the Internet I can use, electronic mail (E-Mail), chat with other users around the world, buy airline, sports, and music tickets, and shop for a house or a car. All of this, and more, provides me with a limitless supply of information for research, business, entertainment, or other personal use. Online services such as America Online, Prodigy, or CompuServe make it even easier to access the power of the Internet. The Internet alone is almost reason enough to become computer literate, but there is still much more that computers can do. One of my favorite reasons for having a computer is for playing video games. With a PC you can play card games, simulation games, sport games, strategy games, fighting games, and adventure games. Today’s technology provides the ultimate experiences in color, graphics, sound, music, full motion video, animation, and 3D effects. Computers have also become increasingly useful in the music, film, and television industry. I have used my computer to compose music, create sound effects, create special effects, and create 3D life-like animation. I haven t done this but I know its possible to edit previous existing movie and TV footage into new programs, as seen in the movie Forrest Gump. All this and more can be done with computers. I feel that there is truly no time like the present to become computer literate. Computers will be doing even more things in the future and will become unavoidable. Purchasing and learning about a new PC now will help put PC’s into the other two-thirds of the homes worldwide and make the transition into a computer age easier. I believe everyone should own a computer regardless of age. The time is now, and the future is here.

Internal and External Factors affect the four functions of management Essay

Internal and External Factors Affecting the Four Functions of Management In relation to the four functions of management, there are several internal and external factors that affect an organization’s success. Using DaVita, Inc. as an example, we can look at each internal factor that would affect the function of management and the external factors. Internal factors would include ethics, innovation and diversity while external factors would include globalization and technology. When we look at why DaVita would consider globalization, we would need to consider the external factors that created this need. In general, when a company looks outside of the country for support it is watching what the competitors are doing. DaVita has found an area where they can run their clinics much more economical. The cost for labor is less which is their highest cost of operation. They also need to consider they have tapped most of the resources available in the United States for growth. They need new areas to continue to grow and dialysis is a global disease. They saw an opportunity with providing high quality dialysis in the less fortunate areas in the world that do not provide that currently (Travis, 2012). DaVita sat down and began the plan of expanding for this purpose. After they specified the goal and thought of the appropriate actions to get there, the next step was to organize. They needed to find a way for everyone to work together to make this a successful transition. The executives began the campaign to lead the group to their vision by helping everyone see what they saw. Only if everyone was on the same page, would this be successful. The support of the public is necessary in order to get through any scrutiny this may cause. After they were able to implement their idea, it was time to control the plan and determine if it was successful or not. The clinical model that DaVita provides to these other countries make this more affordable to the general population and is proven to be able to serve from the current 6% of kidney failure patients to  20-30% (Peerzada, 2012). This would be a significant success for DaVita to accomplish their plan of providing this service to areas that cannot provide this service. In reference to diversity, DaVita is a company that operates in eleven countries in addition to the United States. They deal with diversity on a daily basis. As individuals in the company start to plan their next goal, evaluating who uses thei r service is key. The ideas need to be innovative but also needed by the customer. The target audience is people with kidney failure, but from any nationality. This is key when deciding how customers will pay for the service as well as how to market to them. When management is organizing their plans they must consider where they will get the resources to accomplish this. Moving forward will be challenging when dealing with such a diverse group. Language barriers, culture, cultural norms and resource availability to name a few of the things that need to be considered. When DaVita moves forward with the idea, having effective diverse leaders will prove most valuable. Leaders must posess the ability to communicate with a variety of people. Placing people in various locations is key, and having employees trained in diversity, cultural norms and each countries policy’s. When doing business around the globe, leaders need the ability to motivate someone from China as well as India without violating their beliefs or values. Also leaders need to find a common ground with their staff as well as lead the staff to working as a team. Monitoring such a diverse group will be challenging but also rewarding. The goals set at the beginning of the project will need to be realistic as well as based on each countries health care options. As change needs to happen, they must recognize this and have the right person in place to make those changes will be key. Having a diverse group can bring various insight to a team. An organization must be able to embrace this insight and experience to allow the company to prosper. Using technology effectively can improve and at the same time be inconvenient in the work place. Stress level can rise in employees when the innovation of technology is introduced. Dedicated employees must learn new abilities. They are usually forced to gain skills involving their judgment, when and how to best use technology. Some can see technology as a positive improvement, others can over due the use and become workaholics since there is flexibility that applies and they can even work from home. Advanced and efficient service is a cause of stress in some  employees. The internet has become an impact not just for business but also by individuals. DaVita has made many dedicated changes in their technology some affecting their job performance. Some of their equipment has been changed for better usage and process improvement. As an organization, they focus on the studies and protocol that provide resource of disease and cancer indicators. Chief Executive Officer, Jim Joyce, was selective when the pioneer development of the use of therapeutic filtration devices addressed infectious diseases, cancer and other life-threating conditions. They presented research o nce they were cleared by the FDA of their device. This company was presented the opportunity to change their equipment for better usage and productivity. Referring to innovation, Davita finds consistent dedication to differentiate itself from other kidney companies. With hard work from each employee they use innovative skills and teamwork. The interesting message that I learned from reading DaVita’s website is the word DaVita is italian for â€Å"giving life â€Å". It is a company that specifically treats for kidney health. Regardless of the size, all organizations use and develop ways to manage with tact, strategy and decision-making. They use the four functions of management such as planning, organizing, directing, and controlling. Of the many health care companies that are part of the fortune 500, DaVita is one healthcare provider that brings variety. It provides variety of health care service to patient populations through the United States and abroad. Striving to improve patient’s quality of life and innovative clinical care they were able to offer integrity in treatment plans. This company serves 73 outpatient dialysis centers located in 10 countries outside the United States. They actually focus on programs that are dedicated to bring positive changing communities around the world. DaVita is inv olved in leadership programs that help develop innovation as a part of their social responsibilities. With teams and strong leaders, the company works on basic techniques to reach to those all around the world. DaVita has employees all around the nation. An example of ethics that the company has implemented is to create their own management concept. Davita educates patients with information of their core values. They take privacy serious and comply with policy that protects patient equality. Goals, objectives and tactics are part of their focus on engaging service excellence. This helps eliminate not meeting  expectations that arise by their doctor, team members and patients. They collaborate with integrity and believe in what they say. As I gather from their website on their mission and values section they use phrases like â€Å"one for all, and all for one!†. Together they share purpose and common goals. There is always room for improvement with commitment. They set aside goals that influence their team. When planning for requirement and values they come together as one te am working towards one goal. In conclusion, organizations use function of management to successfully accomplish the goals and objectives. Working in different areas, the four functions are used in globalization, innovation, diversity, technology and the ethics of a company. DaVita dialysis focuses on the health of the kidney and find a method to comply with these functions. They have goals that encourage all employees to determine the best functions for positive success. References Bateman, T. S., & Snell, S. A. (2011). Management: Leading and Collaborating in a Competitive World (9th ed.). Phoenix, AZ: Author. DaVita, Inc. (2014). www.Davita.com. Retrieved from http://www.davita.com Peerzada, A. (2012, January 12). US-based DaVita picks up stake in NephroLife Care for India entry. Retrieved from http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-01-12/news/30620033_1_davita-dialysis-renal-failure Travis, T. (2012, October 2). Time To Follow Berkshire Into DaVita. Retrieved from http://seekingalpha.com/articla/901091-time-to-follow-berkshire-into-davita

Legalization of Drugs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Legalization of Drugs - Essay Example E. Point One: American should never legalize such drugs as marijuana, ecstasy, methamphetamines, heroin, and cocaine for two reasons because of this country’s deep rooted opposition to these drugs. In a democracy, public policy ought to be shaped by what the people want. However, the people do not want to voluntarily spread the disease of drug addiction and abuse, or increase the likelihood that their kids will irresponsibly consume these drugs recreationally (Peele). Point Two: It is a myth that legalized drugs will eliminate organized crime. Organized crime did not disappear after Prohibition’s repeal in the 1920s. The price of drugs, if legalized, would go down and the likelihood of a child’s access to these drugs would increase and put all children at risk (Costa). Point Three: The current administration of the United States correctly believes that â€Å"protecting the safety of our food and drug supply is one of the most fundamental responsibilities government has†. This inevitably includes protecting citizens from the effects of releasing very harmful substances into the marketplace. The government, to uphold its responsibility of protection, must prevent this market activity from happening (Daily Kos). D. The War on Drugs is one of the most catastrophically inefficient and unjust of governmental policies in the history of the United States. Ever since its launch, it has put countless harmless individuals in prisons for crimes that have almost no negative impact on society. Jailing is not a deterrent for drug sale or abuse; it only serves to pull families apart unjustly. It also prevents drug addicts from seeking and getting the help they need in breaking their habits. These drugs can also play a positive role in the lives of those suffering with incurable diseases like multiple sclerosis. E. Point One: Possession or

Selecting and Model and Anticipating Barriers posts Assignment

Selecting and Model and Anticipating Barriers posts - Assignment Example In matters of oral health, â€Å"...perceived severity...and...Perceived benefits† should be the main concepts in promotion of oral hygiene. Perceived severity of oral problems is usually low as oral problems are not perceived as fatal; however, quality of life is significantly lowered e.g. through pain and a problem like halitosis limits social interaction. Dentists thus can be involved in HBM by showing the benefits of prevention and healthy living; especially financial benefits and avoidance of pain (Maurer & Smith, 2009). I agree that â€Å"People know what is good for their health but it is difficult for them to change their behavior.† This might stem from them not knowing the actual steps needed to lead healthier lives in spite of them having insight to the health problems they face. By integrating people in decision-making, they are part of the solution thus likely to adopt change than when they feel the proposed changes are alien to them (Center for Disease Control and

Compare and contrast the two accounts. What is the perspective of each Essay

Compare and contrast the two accounts. What is the perspective of each text How does Diamant change or add to the Genesis narrative Why - Essay Example very important to anyone who reads this novel to read also the Bible, so that he will be guided by the chronological events, the characters and the existing facts that might be destroyed, if a reader will just be depended or hooked to the ideas and emotions the novel injects. The reference here is the scripture, which will be the real basis of the discussion, and relatively how the novel, The Red Tent made slight changes to the biblical story line. By then, a reader will be equipped with the necessary understanding on how a margin line can be created from both, such that will separate what is scriptural and a historical fiction. Speaking of fiction, The Red Tent is a thing that could be appreciated. Any person who loves fiction can easily grasp and understand the point of view of the author. It is expected that from the original text, a novel can add and modify the real content in order to create the twist of what the true story is, and then produce a beautiful piece without necessarily referring from the actual facts. From the title of the novel, it will lead us to the idea that the whole novel would not really be a Biblical fact. The term â€Å"red tent† where allegedly Dinah and her mothers gather together is only a creative thing added by the author of the novel itself. In the novel, the red tent is the place where Hebrew women gathered together during their menstrual periods, and as they gather share thoughts, ideas and their womanly experiences in life. The portrayal in the story attempts to make us visualize a designated place for women exclusively made for them to hide themselves from the com munity during their monthly periods. Biblically, it is not true that there is an intended place particularly for women to gather during their monthly period. Scriptural account from the book of the Bible shows that a woman during her menstrual cycle would stay on her tent until menstruation end, but not particularly red tent. Another point is, the practice of

Business Relationship and Opportunities in Mexico Research Proposal

Business Relationship and Opportunities in Mexico - Research Proposal Example Mexico is situated in north - western part of Latin America.The ethnic composition of Mexico and the famous identities of its region along with extremely bright culture have been created by the influence of external indigenous and migration of people. The culture of Mexico is also influenced by African and Spanish civilizations. The valuable assets of the region are its rich diversity of varied cultures. For conducting business in Mexican environment, a wide knowledge of its intricate culture and heritage need to be properly understood. For those who want to conduct business in Mexico and make them successful, it is necessary to acquire a clear knowledge of tradition and culture of Mexico. Formal approach of business relations is adopted by Mexicans. They address the business partner with the suitable title. Civility or professional titles are utilized which is followed by a surname. The business meeting starts with the most suitable type of greeting such as warm and positive handshake. This is done both in case of arrival and departure from the meeting regardless of gender or superiority. A vital part of Mexican business procedure includes reliable contacts and connections need to be secured for maintaining the business. For gaining trust and success in business in Mexico, it is essential for the use of ‘personal introductions’ with the help of a common friend or a suitable professional. The negotiations of business are a lengthy procedure in Mexico and exchange of elements is expected. It is also vital to note that Mexican business people are inclined to support business decision as well as proposals based on the level of trust of the individual establis hed with the foreign counterparts. (Communicaid Group Ltd, 2009). 3.0 Mexican Economy The economic pattern of Mexico can be understood by analyzing the sectoral and regional economic pattern of the nation. The recent data of Gross Domestic Product of Mexico shows that the service industry is dominating in the market of Mexico. The service has huge contribution to GDP other than the industrial sector. The industrial sector accounts for slightly more than one fourth of GDP. The manufacturing industries have dominated in the market. There is a strong growth in mining and construction industries in the last eight years. Growth has been particularly high in the areas of metal industries as well as machineries and equipments, indicating a gradual sophistication of the Mexican product portfolio. The textile industry has shown failure in competitiveness which implies that it has grown lower than the average point. Due to rising of manufacturing costs in Mexico, the attractiveness of the cou ntry as a textile producer is losing its sheen. The low-rated countries in Asia and Central America too are capturing amounts of business in large scale. Till now, the efforts of the Government to protect this industry through a moderately protectionist sectoral trade policy have not been capable to prevent this erosion. Mexican region, for the past fourteen years, has not experienced development from the expansion of economic growth. Mexico City, on the other hand, has the benefit of per-capita income of little more than 15.000 USD. In the Southern states of Chiapas and Oaxaca, GDP per capita remains lower than 3.000 USD. The same is relevant for industrialization. The accounts manufacturing is about 30% of GDP in several states in the region of Mexico City and in the North, it remains below 5%. This includes the units of Southern Campeche and Chiapas. The significance

Ernest Hemingway Hills Like White Elephants Essay - 1

Ernest Hemingway Hills Like White Elephants - Essay Example They enjoyed movement, freedom and fun, but as soon as the lady is pregnant, the man can not stand the fact that now he must settle down like the stable hills. The Bamboo Bead Curtain is another symbol. It makes us think about boundaries or borders. The apparent divide between Jig and the man is their difference of opinion. Jig wants to keep the baby while the man is not ready for fatherhood, especially because they don’t seem to have been married at the moment. The pregnancy itself is a curtain that precludes communication between the two. At the end of the story the ‘curtain’ of difference turns to be an unbreakable wall. The frequent orders for beer and the beer itself also represent the use of a substance to obstruct smooth communication. Instead of discussing the important issue that has come up, they keep on asking for beer just to obstruct the communication between them. The beer also represents an element to quench their thirst for unanswered questions: These questions never seem to be satisfactorily answered and Jig is extremely thirsty for the answer. And in the event that they have no answer, the beer seems to act as a quenching element although liquid is not exactly her craving. These symbols make us involve intellectually into the story for, it is often difficult to understand them. Once we understand what those symbols represent, they also involve us emotionally into the story especially while sympathizing with

Leadership and employee relations Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Leadership and employee relations - Article Example The leaders and Mangers apply different conceptualizations and approaches to work and exercise different ways of problem solving; undertake different functions in the organizations. They are exhibit different behaviors owing to their different intrinsic and extrinsic motivations. (Ofori, Toor. 2008). In an organization there is no distinct leader there are only managers. The Manager will be acting in both the capacity of leader and manager. A successful manager has both the quality of manager and leader who make use of the qualities discretely. The manager ship and leadership are the tools, through which the manager can influence the behavior of the employees and attain the organizational goals. The Manager and employee relationship in an organization is a delicate one. A good leader and manager can be able to handle and maintain a good relationship with his employees. In the organizations the employees are working towards the attainment of goals where the leaders, who could be instrumental in guiding the efforts of group of employees. The successful performance of leadership role is essential for the survival of an organization.

Quantitative Techniques for Business Project Essay

Quantitative Techniques for Business Project - Essay Example This assignment studies behavior of stock prices at daily interval for the period from July 20, 1988 to July 20, 2009. Figure 1, 2 and 3 illustrate the dynamic character of stock prices respectively of companies Microsoft, Intel, and H&P. The graphical views tell us that these three stocks exhibited exponential growth from the beginning until the middle of 2000. All three stocks later dropped in prices by 30%-% 40% in about 24 moths. They never achieved the previous peak. Microsoft maintained stable prices for the rest of the period while Intel and Hewlett & Packard went through bumpy roads. The dynamic character of Apple stock was different from that of previously mentioned stocks. Figure 4 shows the asymptotic behavior of Apple stock prices from the beginning of the observation period until the middle of 1999. In the latter period, Apple stock price exhibited exponential growth until was hit by the global financial crisis of 2008. Apple’s sudden growth after the mid-1999 can be associated with the release of new products and services. The exponential growth of Microsoft, Intel and H&P stock prices from 1988 until 2000 should be contributed to the development of digital technology of that time. Thus, we can conclude that the innovation and new products influence the rise in stock prices. At the same time, irrespective of innovation, the overall market condition also causes influence on the stock prices. Figure 5 depicts S&P 500 index values from September 26, 2008 to November 21, 2008. In 41 days, the index dropped by 34%. This incident is named as the Global Financial Crisis of 2008. It caused a drop in prices of Microsoft, Apple, Intel and H&P stocks respectively by 27.69%, 35.61%, 31.13%, and 27.55%. This assignment is using time-series data of stock prices. Let Pt be the price of an asset at a time index t and P t-1 at a time t-1. We assume

Germany Culture Essay Example for Free

Germany Culture Essay Have you ever wondered where the Christmas tree came from? Along time ago, in the early 700’s a monk, called St. Boniface, was preaching to a group of Germanic Druids. The Druids idolized oak trees. And in order to stop the Druids idolatry of oak trees, the monk chopped down a huge one. Crashing down to the earth, the tree crushed everything in its path, except for a small fir sapling. The monk declared that this was a miracle that this one single sapling wasn’t killed and concluded, â€Å"Let this be called the tree of the Christ Child. † And this is how to custom of having a tree during the Christmas season came to be. It was started by the Germans, and moved to Europe, who brought it to America. [Marples] German Americans have had a very large impact on the American society. One of the largest reasons could be that people with German ancestry comprise about 51 million people, which makes up 17% of all of the U.S’s population. That’s roughly one fifth of all America’s population where one of their ancestors originated from Germany. [American] Germans started coming to the British Colonies of the New World, now the northeastern part of America, in the 1680s. Many immigrants from German continued to come to America during the 19th century. Many immigrated to America because of shortage of land, and religious or political oppression in Europe. [Zane] Even in recent times, Germans have helped shape America into what it is today. German Americans have influenced almost every field of American society, including science, architecture, industry, sports, entertainment, theology, government, and the military. Generals Baron von Steuben, John Pershing, Dwight Eisenhower, and Norman Schwarzkopf commanded the United States Army in the American Revolutionary War, World War I, World War II, and the Persian Gulf War. John D. Rockefeller, William Boeing, Walter Chrysler, George Westinghouse, and Donald Trump have also been an important part of American industry and business. Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Jack Nicklaus, Doris Day, and Leonardo DiCaprio became famous athletes or actors. And finally Albert Einstein and Wernher von Braun, two German Americans, greatly effected America and the whole world. Many famous, well known, and people who have changed America greatly have been German Americans. [German] German Americans have also changed the American food greatly also. Germans brought hog dogs and hamburgers to the America’s, which is now known as the â€Å"American Food†, or the food that people think of when they hear America. They also have the beer brewing dominated for most of America. German immigrants Eberhard, Anheuser, Adolphus Busch, and others have greatly changed America’s beer market. [Mittelman] [Home of the Hamburger] Overall, the effect that German Americans have had on America is huge. They have helped shake America in many ways including holiday traditions, science, sports, entertainment, and government. America is not made of one people, but of many. And their idea’s and traditions all mixed together is what makes this such a great country.

Data Communications Essay Example for Free

Data Communications Essay Differentiate between an analog and a digital electromagnetic signal. What are three important characteristics of a periodic signal. What is the relationship between the wavelength and frequency of a sine wave. Define fundamental frequency. What is the relationship between a signals spectrum and its bandwidth. What is attenuation? Define channel capacity. What key factors affect channel capacity? Problems: Figure 1 shows the frequency domain function for a single square pulse. The signal pulse could represent a digital 1 in a communications system. Note that an infinite number of higher frequencies of decreasing magnitudes is needed to represent the single pulse. What implication does that have for a real digital transmission system? Suppose that a digitised TV picture is to be transmitted from a source that uses a matrix of 480 x 500 picture elements (pixels), where each pixel can take on one of 32 intensity values. Assume that 30 pictures are sent per second. (This digital source is is roughly equivalent to broadcast TV standards that have been adopted.) Find the source rate R (bps) Assume that the TV picture is to be transmitted over a channel with 4.5Mhz bandwidth and a 35dB signal-to -noise ratio. Find the capacity of the channel (bps). Discuss how the parameters given in part (a.) could be modified to allow transmission of colour TV signals without increasing the required value for R. What is the channel capacity for a teleprinter channel with a 300Hz bandwidth and a signal-to-noise ratio of 3dB, where the noise is white thermal noise? A digital signalling system is required to operate at 9600bps. If a signal element encodes a 4-bit word, what is the minimum required bandwidth of the channel? Repeat part (a .) for the case of 8-bit words. Given the narrow (usable) audio bandwidth of a telephone transmission facility, a nominal SNR of 56dB (400,000), and a certain level of distortion, What is the theoretical maximum channel capacity (kbps) of traditional telephone lines? What can we say about the actual maximum channel capacity? Given a channel with an intended capacity of 20Mpbs, the bandwidth of the channel is 3MHz. Assuming white thermal noise, what signal-to-noise ratio is required to achieve this capacity? If an amplifier has a 30dB voltage gain, what voltage ratio does the gain represent? An amplifier has an output of 20W. What is the output in dBW? Answers: Short Questions With guided media, the electromagnetic waves are guided along an enclosed physical path whereas unguided media provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. A continuous or analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time while a discrete or digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains one of a finite number of constant levels for some period of time and then changes to another constant level. Amplitude, frequency, and phase are three important characteristics of a periodic signal. The relationship is ÃŽ »f = v, where ÃŽ » is the wavelength, f is the frequency, and v is the speed at which the signal is traveling. The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency component in the Fourier representation of a periodic quantity. The spectrum of a signal is the frequencies it contains while the bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum. Attenuation is the gradual weakening of a signal over dis tance. The rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is referred to as the channel capacity. Bandwidth, noise, and error rate.

Customer Service Analysis Of Easyjet And Ryanair Tourism Essay

Customer Service Analysis Of Easyjet And Ryanair Tourism Essay In reality, an industrys set of characteristics define its own success factors. Different industries will thus have different success factors. In service industry, however, cost and customer service are the major factors that companies compete for. With cost the firm aims to create added value by delivering same benefits as its competitors, but at a lower cost. Customer service is to deliver great service to exceed their expectations. It is the service experience that builds reputations and expands business, or destroys reputations and contracts business (85words). In airline industry, customers demand varies. In the past, most customers travelled in luxury airplanes. British Airlines (BA) is a good example. BA provides great services and travellers had no choice to pay high cost. Today, definition of airline has been changed with the presence of low fare carriers. Air travel is no longer luxury and everyone now can fly at affordable price. The key objective of low fare carriers is to reach the market at a lower cost and to provide the services to large segment. EasyJet and Ryaniar are two top low fare carriers in Europe with different operation strategies. Traveller who look for low price and if comfy is not a factor, Ryanair could be a good choice. Traveller who is in budget and looking for convenience, EasyJet is the best choice. Low fare is a distinct order qualifier in low cost airline industry. EasyJet is the second largest low fare airline service provider behind Ryanair, expanding rapidly since its establishment in 1995. Operating from its Luton headquarters, it carries around 40 million a year with a growing fleet of over 180 aircrafts. Today, EasyJet employed over 7,300 people and flies to over 500 routes including to European, North African, and West Asian countries. (207words) Task 3 Travellers are attracted to different attributes, termed as performance objectives. Travellers with budget control will likely to use either EasyJet or Ryanair; both offer a competitive low price. Ryanair claim an average  £34 per 600km, EasyJet claim  £45. EasyJet is not as cheap as Ryanairs, but travellers have an option to travel at different times on the same day. EasyJets options are more visible and easier to understand compared to Ryanair. However, cost is not only the basis they can compete. This brings to another objective, dependability. EasyJet flies to both primary and secondary airport with high frequency. Flying to main airport is to provide convenience, secondary airport to avoid delays, high turnaround and cut operating cost, and high frequency per day is to enable travellers to choose suitable scheduled flight and load more passengers. Ryanair only flies to secondary airport to keep cost low with minimum flight frequency. Following this is flexibility. In theory, it refers to the ability of EasyJet to offer a wide variety of services to their passengers. With the increasing demand of business travellers who are under budget control, EasyJet is the right option who serves the market with quality services. EasyJet is now serving both, leisure and business travellers, which Ryanair do not have. Low cost, high dependability and flexibility in providing their services are the main competitive factors identified in this study. To differentiate EasyJet further, EasyJet is good in innovation. Corporate customers are now for the first time able to view and make reservation through Global Distribution Systems (GDS), business.EasyJet.com. With such service, there is no change to either EasyJet`s business model or its unique pricing structure. Unlike Ryanair, they innovate their service to cut operating cost but at the same time to charge every single service offered to their passengers. The different the way they innovate their services can distinctly distinguished between the two. Innovation is the EasyJets order winner.(319words) Task 4 From the above, EasyJet has their own competitive factors over their main contender, Ryanair. However, EasyJet values in no frills, care and convenience, low cost concept and to keeping costs low requires high assets utilization and high efficiency in every parts of their operation. There is no reason for travellers not to use EasyJet as their main carrier. (58words) Task 5 In theory, innovation is any new idea or getting ideas from already existing ones and redesigns it to make it work better. It is what keeps EasyJet moving forward and to succeed in its competitive environment. Speedy Boarding Plus is the latest EasyJet innovation to give their customers more choice and flexibility. This new facility builds on the success not only providing passengers with the opportunity to board a flight first and have a wider choice of seats but also offer them a dedicated check-in area compared with Ryanair innovation to cut cost without considering their passengers convenience. This could be seen in their plans to cut costs by making fliers perch on stools with seatbelts around their waists. Ryanair wants passengers to stand onboard so the budget airline can squeeze more people. EasyJet aimed to offer more convenience to passengers while keeping the cost as low as possible. EasyJets innovative deal with Business Travel International (BTI), which is a leading travel management company, will give access to their booking inventory and certain back-office systems. This will help increase EasyJet`s penetration into the lucrative corporate travel market. Also, the innovation of a new technology called AVOID (Airborne Volcanic Object Identifier and Detector) which would be mounted on a planes tail fin, will allow pilots to detect dangerously high levels of ash and to avoid violent thunderstorms. This new technology will prevent a repetition of the blanket bans on airspace that brought havoc to millions of passengers across Europe in March and April. (272words) Task 6 Low cost Leadership Strategy EasyJet is adopting a low cost leadership strategy a strategy that allows them to provide services at low price than their competitors. This was identified as EasyJets order qualifier. Low cost concept can be derived from high asset utilization and high operating efficiency (Figure). At EasyJet, the aircraft flies 11 hours a day, four hours longer than BA while the pilots fly 900 hours a year, same as Ryanair, but 50% more than British Airways. EasyJet provide convenience to its customer through direct sales of ticket through the company website, www.easyiet.com. This gives their known consumers no hesitation about booking online and choice is offered 24 hours a day, seven days a week and reductions are offered for booking on the web. Passengers are also given the best fare available on each flight which is quoted one way. This means that the best price for the most convenient flight can be obtained both ways, optimizing the round trip cost for the passenger. This compared with the inflexible pricing and ticketing structures offered by conventional airlines. (223words) Supply Chain It is also identified that EasyJet is adopting a bidirectional supply chain as well as outsourcing strategy (Figure ) in their attempt to cut cost. EasyJet acts as an agent to travellers while outsourced many of its services and goods from suppliers. Services such as aircraft maintenance is oversee by SR Technics, Network Infrastructure to enable the online booking is managed by Alfred McAlpine, and In-flight magazine is provided by Ink Company. Gate Gourmet is responsible for the supply of all food for onboard purchase, duty free products, and crew meals. Both bidirectional and outsourcing strategies helped EasyJet to focus on their core operation and help them to cut their cost.(111words) Quality Service EasyJet make use of value-based approach to quality in terms of cost and customer service. Customers may accept low quality service for a lower price compared to BA where customers are offered great quality service for a higher price. EasyJet offers quality service to its customers by targeting both leisure and business travellers. At EasyJet, the checked in baggage charge is slightly higher than Ryanairs, at  £22, but travellers are allowed 20 kilos of baggage. In addition, EasyJet has no specific weight for hand luggage. EasyJet also charge a booking fee, but this is per booking, rather than per person, as in the case of Ryanair. As for business travellers, they are allowed to check-in and board earlier without charge. Ryanair do not offer such services. At EasyJet, online check-in is also available to all travellers with no fee but Ryanair charged  £5 per traveller. More business services are summarized in table __. (153words)

Gay Marriage Should Be Legal Essay -- Homosexuality same-sex couples

On June 26, 2015, the US Supreme Court ruled that the US Constitution guarantees the right for same-sex couples to marry. Should gay marriages really be allowed? Has the Supreme Court ruled in error? Gay marriage should be legal because all individuals have the same right in society; because same-sex couples can constitute a good based family; because it is just a way to make official a common union nowadays, even with the religious issue; because it is not related to polygamy; and because love matters and it does not differ in nature according to the sex of its object or the person who experiences it. The first reason why same sex marriage should be legal is because it is fair for all individuals to have the same rights in society. With the end of sodomy laws, a recent decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, conservatives have lost their last excuse to write off gay lives and love as unworthy of social accommodation. But whatever ones feel about the reasoning of the decision, its results is clear: gay Americans are no longer criminals. Even if they were, as murderers on death row that have the constitutional right to marriage, they should have too. The second objection about why same sex marriage should be legal is because a same sex couple can really constitute a good based family, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics that has recognized that gay households can be just as loving and supportive an environment for raising children as the straight kind. Opponen...

Social Outcasts in John Steinbecks Of Mice and Men :: Steinbeck Of Mice and Men Essays

Social Outcasts in Of Mice and Men In the novel Of Mice and Men written by John Steinbeck, a variety of characters are present, although, not all fit in. Two of the strongest examples are Crooks, and Curley's Wife. Throughout the novel, they are portrayed as social outcasts in whatever they did. Another good example is Lennie, mainly because of his mental condition. All three are treated in a cruel manner at one point or another in the novel. Crooks is an older black man with a crooked back, who lives by himself in the barn. He was asked not to bother the whites, and to stay out of their way, and so therefore he requests that no one bother him. Being the only African American on the ranch, the reader begins to question racism and prejudice. Were the others racist toward Crooks? Not necessarily, they just didn't allow him to hang out in the bunkhouse with them. At one point in the novel, Crooks talks of how lonely he gets, and how a man goes insane without anyone to talk with. He says this to Lennie: ""S'pose you didn't have nobody. S'pose you couldn't go into the bunkhouse and play rummy 'cause you was black. How'd you like that? S'pose you had to sit out here an' read books. Sure you could play horseshoes till it got dark, but then you got to read books. Books ain't no good. A guy needs somebody-to be near him. A guy goes nuts if he ain't got nobody. Don't make no difference who the guy is, long's he's with you. I tell ya, I tell ya a guy gets too lonely an' he gets sick" (pg.'s 72-73) Even if nobody treated him like an outcast, or in other words called him a nigger and pushed him around, he had to feel like one. The above quote explains what Crooks felt loneliness could do to a man. The other men on the ranch also treat Curley's wife, who is never given a name, poorly. She is always looking for attention and flirting with them, and this turns them off immensely. The fact that she is the only woman in Social Outcasts in John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men :: Steinbeck Of Mice and Men Essays Social Outcasts in Of Mice and Men In the novel Of Mice and Men written by John Steinbeck, a variety of characters are present, although, not all fit in. Two of the strongest examples are Crooks, and Curley's Wife. Throughout the novel, they are portrayed as social outcasts in whatever they did. Another good example is Lennie, mainly because of his mental condition. All three are treated in a cruel manner at one point or another in the novel. Crooks is an older black man with a crooked back, who lives by himself in the barn. He was asked not to bother the whites, and to stay out of their way, and so therefore he requests that no one bother him. Being the only African American on the ranch, the reader begins to question racism and prejudice. Were the others racist toward Crooks? Not necessarily, they just didn't allow him to hang out in the bunkhouse with them. At one point in the novel, Crooks talks of how lonely he gets, and how a man goes insane without anyone to talk with. He says this to Lennie: ""S'pose you didn't have nobody. S'pose you couldn't go into the bunkhouse and play rummy 'cause you was black. How'd you like that? S'pose you had to sit out here an' read books. Sure you could play horseshoes till it got dark, but then you got to read books. Books ain't no good. A guy needs somebody-to be near him. A guy goes nuts if he ain't got nobody. Don't make no difference who the guy is, long's he's with you. I tell ya, I tell ya a guy gets too lonely an' he gets sick" (pg.'s 72-73) Even if nobody treated him like an outcast, or in other words called him a nigger and pushed him around, he had to feel like one. The above quote explains what Crooks felt loneliness could do to a man. The other men on the ranch also treat Curley's wife, who is never given a name, poorly. She is always looking for attention and flirting with them, and this turns them off immensely. The fact that she is the only woman in

The Jungle :: Socialism, Sinclair

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout American history, people that have challenged themselves with a cause have had at least some control of major issues present during their lives. Upton Sinclair was one of these influential people. Using his talent for writing, Sinclair wrote his most successful novel, The Jungle. This novel stressed a need to improve conditions for industrial workers, and exposed the faults of Capitalism in order to promote his cause; which was Socialism. Sinclair achieved his goal of promoting Socialism with the story of Jurgis Rudkus and his family. By describing the harsh system in which workers were consumed by, Sinclair uncovered faults in Capitalism, and inversely promoted Socialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Sinclair’s story, he vividly described the family and the disagreeable situation they were in. The accounts of the meatpacking industry, developed mainly on truth from personal experience, were filled with examples of an unjust work system, corruption by employers, and the resulting low living conditions. For example, Packingtown laborers would be forced to work repeatedly faster, only to see their wages cut numerous times. Also, families became impoverished, causing the children to work. As a result, Elzbieta's son, Stanislovas, was eaten alive by rats. Such major problems in the Capitalist system were focused on throughout the novel. The problems in the meatpacking industry related to issues concerning the entire industrial labor force. Sinclair continued to show that these problems could have been solved by Socialism. The fact that Jurgis joined the Socialist Party and was dedicated to improving his surroundings was how Sinclair displayed the fact that Socialism was a more practical system. The Jungle :: Socialism, Sinclair   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout American history, people that have challenged themselves with a cause have had at least some control of major issues present during their lives. Upton Sinclair was one of these influential people. Using his talent for writing, Sinclair wrote his most successful novel, The Jungle. This novel stressed a need to improve conditions for industrial workers, and exposed the faults of Capitalism in order to promote his cause; which was Socialism. Sinclair achieved his goal of promoting Socialism with the story of Jurgis Rudkus and his family. By describing the harsh system in which workers were consumed by, Sinclair uncovered faults in Capitalism, and inversely promoted Socialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Sinclair’s story, he vividly described the family and the disagreeable situation they were in. The accounts of the meatpacking industry, developed mainly on truth from personal experience, were filled with examples of an unjust work system, corruption by employers, and the resulting low living conditions. For example, Packingtown laborers would be forced to work repeatedly faster, only to see their wages cut numerous times. Also, families became impoverished, causing the children to work. As a result, Elzbieta's son, Stanislovas, was eaten alive by rats. Such major problems in the Capitalist system were focused on throughout the novel. The problems in the meatpacking industry related to issues concerning the entire industrial labor force. Sinclair continued to show that these problems could have been solved by Socialism. The fact that Jurgis joined the Socialist Party and was dedicated to improving his surroundings was how Sinclair displayed the fact that Socialism was a more practical system.

Emergence and Impact of Regional Parties Essay

It is raining acronyms in politics and the vibrant Indian political landscape is flooded. Well, almost so as Regional parties gain ground with amazing alacrity in a diverse India where a fast-transforming political map now promises a never before variety. SAD in Punjab on one side, SP, BSP in Uttar Pradesh on the other, RJD, JD(U) in Bihar as also DMK, AIADMK, PMK, MDMK and DMDK in the deep South and TMC, AGP and others in North-East —they seem to be flowing in from all nooks and corners to lend a different hue, their own hue, to the political waters as they flow in our country today. Though the experiment with regional politics first succeeded in the late 1960s when many parties won against the Congress, it was only post-1989 that regional politics really became a phenomenon, here to stay, courtesy the National Parties themselves. The alphabet-soup illustrating the striking transformation of India’s politics over the past two decades, brewed on the fire provided by the space vacated by National Parties to be wedded to the cause of regional issues, local aspirations and territorial priorities. Also, shrinking space of the National Parties led to creation of a vacuum which the Regional parties were happy to fill. They sprung up and marched ahead as a consequence of the leanings of the public to advance its aspirations. Essentially individualistic, personality-driven parties bound by a lose chain of thought rather than a cohesive coordinated ideology, these pandered to regional populism with a much narrower vision of things sans any broad-based National conse nsus on ideology and issues. But, then, what did the mushrooming of these regional parties, finally, find reflection in? While it strengthened the federal structure with assertion by the States of the Union for its share in power, privileges, taxes, revenues and benefits of micro-macro schemes, it also led to a certain amount of healthy competition inter se states, making us the republic that we really are. It also gave rise to the concept of â€Å"shared sovereignty†, marked by an increase in the capacity of the state to influence its own development performance while enhancing the representative character of India’s democracy. The relentless rise of these regional â€Å"home-grown† parties, sharing the one common attribute of having a mass base in only the state of their birth, led to a spate of constitutional and legislative reforms in terms of judicial, administrative and centre-state relations. Not only this, it weaved together an interplay of forces, prompting National parties to not only rope them in for support but also brought about a dependence which lent a Regional flavor to National Policies. Then, it is in this that emerged the beauty of the dove-tailing of the National and these Regional entities. But, then, since beauty is never blemish-free, there is a flip side too. Given their â€Å"strategic† positioning, the Regional parties have not only exploited this dependence of the National Parties for their own advantage but, at times, even arm-twisted the latter to get their way. There’s a way out of this of labyrinth in which National Parties find themselves lost in and it does not lie in a top-down approach which, in the present times, seems not only inadequate but also outdated. We have an India defined by mobilization of a plethora of identity and interest groups which have taken the shape and form of Regional parties to diffuse real power from the Centre to the states. The National Parties need to wake up and smell the coffee. The crutches of dependence on Regional parties have to go and they have to not only learn to stand on their own feet but even walk that extra mile to fulfill regional aspirations to show that each one of the 28 states matters as much. For this, they must permit regional units to function at the local level as semi-independent units with adequate flexibility for leadership-building at the regional level. This will help balance the regional interest with the National interest which many a times end upconflicting with each other. Besides, a cohesive National party with semiindependent regional strait-jacketed unit to cater to regional interests is the only guarantee for ensuring continuous unification within India’s multi-ethnic diversity which weaves the many strands of region, religion, culture and politics into one social fabric we call India.

Bebop Research Paper Essay

Bebop music was the next evolutionary change of Jazz music that succeeded swing music. This paper’s aim is look at musicians who impacted this era, exploring more in depth Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker. In the early 1940’s, the swing bands began to all sound the same as well as work along predictable chord changes.1 The music was now not used for dancing. Some people believed that this would let the music go away from the elite social groups, and now be for everybody. Also just because a musician could play swing music well, there was no guarantee that the same musician would be able to perform Bebop. This new style of music was defined through adventurous soloists such as Dizzy Gillespie. Although swing music did have some creativity, in Bebop the chorus was done once at the beginning and once at the end, the middle was mostly up to the soloist’s creativity and inventiveness. Bebop music really took hold during the years of American involvement in WWII. During this time there was a major strike from the Musicians Union because they wanted more money from labels because of money lost on free radio.2 The strike led to musicians jamming with each other and not being able to record. Since there was a lack of recorded material for the music, when recording started again, and people heard Bebop they were very taken aback. They had no warning that this new style of music was being created, let alone how different it was from swing. The musical style itself differed quite a lot from anything that had ever been done in Jazz up until this point. Along with the chorus only being repeated at the end of a musical number, there were fast tempos, asymmetrical phrasing, and intricate melodies. The only things that held Bebop together were underlying harmonies that were played by the rhythm section. Other then this, most of the music ended up being improvisational as discussed earlier. The chord progression which was used for the music was actually not much different from the swing era, but the melody was new and much more complex. At the end of the Bebop era, musicians were using harmonic substitutions instead chords. This style and era of Jazz took people by surprise. The music was different, unique, and really let the musicians express who they were as Jazz musicians. Dizzy Gillespie was born John Birks Gillespie in South Carolina on October 21, 1917.3 He was youngest of nine children. His childhood was not one that he wanted to remember much. His father was very abusive towards him and his siblings. â€Å"I was scared, scared of my father. He was super austere, and never showed any emotion. He’d give me a whipping every Sunday morning, me and my brothers,† said Dizzy speaking of his childhood. 4 Gillespie got into a lot of trouble as a child. But at the age of ten or so, an English teacher introduced him to music, which lead him to joining the school band. 5 He 3 Alyn Shipton, Groovin High: The life of Dizzy Gillespie, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, 6 started his young music career playing the trombone. The instrument changed once he borrowed a neighbor’s trumpet for the first time.6 Dizzy began playing in the loc al bands all around town. After his younger years, Gillespie attended a school that was a boarding school and day college, called the Laurinburg Institute in North Carolina. 7 While he was there it is thought that he was struggling for money for clothes. Although tuition and board was covered for him, he had worked in the field to make extra money. 8 Dizzy Gillespie’s mother moved up to Philadelphia while he was at the end of his career at the Laurinburg Institute and moved up to be with her in 1935.9 He began playing in bands about Philly and in the area. This was done for a few years between 1935-1937, before he moved up to New York City.10 While he was in Philadelphia he got his reputation and subsequently his nickname, â€Å"Dizzy†. He was known for the unpredictable nature in which he would play the trumpet and act outside of performing. When he arrived in New York City, he was hired by the Teddy Hill Orchestra for a European tour.11 Before being hired, Dizzy was playing around town and making a name for himself. There he lived with his brother in an apartment in New York City. He went out all night so that his brother could come home form working all day and go to sleep. Gillespie’s first recordings were with the Teddy Hill Orchestra Band. After being with Hill for a few years, Gillespie joined Cab Calloway in the summer of 1939. 13 They played at the Cotton Club but Calloway was touring a lot. This gave Dizzy the opportunity to develop his musicianship through style and knowledge through playing at all night jam sessions. Then, in 1942, Gillespie joined Earl â€Å"Fatha† Hines band. Unfortunately, in 1943, lots of band members left, including Dizzy Gillespie. He began to form his own bands that started by opening at Onyx Club on 52nd St in New York City.14 Dizzy had begun to play â€Å"bebop† in 1940, and was now able to do it full time. The venue became a hot spot for this new evolutional sound in Jazz. In 1956 Gillespie and his band went on a state department tour of the Middle East, which earned another nickname â€Å"Ambassador of Jazz†. He continued to work as a Jazz ambassador for the rest of his career, going to Cuba in 1977, and working with United Nations Orchestra. At the end of his life he took up educating young musicians. He unfortunately died from pancreatic cancer in 1993. He left us with a new style of music, and left his mark by helping educate a new generation of Jazz musicians. Another great artist, and considered the second founder of Bebop was Charlie Parker. He grew up in Kansas City, Kansas. Parker was raised here until he was seven years old and then his family moved to Kansas City, Missouri that was thriving culturally at the time.15 It was an important city for African-American music as well. Parker had his irst bout with music in public schools in Kansas City, Missouri.16 In high school, Charlie Parker began by playing the baritone horn, then later on switched to the alto saxophone in 1933, which he stuck with. At the age of 15, the determined in yet not very talented yet, Parker left school to pursue his music career. The young man had a hard time at first getting yelled at by fellow band members, and then practicing for fifteen hours a day.17 From 1935 to 1939 he worked in Kansas City playing with local groups developing his talent through practice and performance.18 In 1939 Charlie Parker moved from Kansas City to New York City. When he arrived he worked as a dishwasher and attended jam sessions during the nights.19 While he was in New York City, he ended up meeting trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie. He would end up collaborating and working with Gillespie to create what we now know as Bebop.20 From 1940-1942 Charlie Parker played in Jay McShann’s that toured in the southwest and Chicago, and then recorded with them in Dallas.21 At this time, the recordings were more swing-based and were also made for broadcasting.22 In 1942 he joined Earl Hines band, this would prove to be a great move because him and Gillespie together were able 16 Ken Burns, Charlie Parker, to experiment. As this â€Å"big band† style of music began to decline, the up-beat improvisational style of Parker began to show. This style of Jazz caught on with the younger generations of musicians throughout the 1940’s and 1950’s. Parker’s success was cut short because of addiction. When he was a child, he had an accident that he got addicted to morphine from. In 1951, he had his cabaret license revoked.23 Parker was banned from performing at nightclubs and later attempted suicide twice, and died in 1955. As one of the founders of Bebop, Charlie Parker contributed quality work in Jazz for the future generations. When he was playing, the older generations did not take to his new form of Jazz, now people look back and call him and innovator. Max Roach is another great innovator, and is one of the best jazz percussionists to ever play. Roach grew up in Brooklyn in a house that was already full of music. His mother was a gospel singer and began to play instruments in gospel bands when he was 10 years old.24 The first instrument he played was the bugle, and then later switched to the drums. When he was 16 he played in his first big performance, he substituted in Duke Ellington’s band. 25 When he was 18, he began going down to 52nd street and 78th street to begin jamming with other Jazz musicians. He was influenced by Kenny Clarke and was one of the few bebop drummers of the time. Roach would keep time on the cymbal instead of the bass drum, as swinger drummers did.26 This technique allowed for more 23 Burns  space to create rhythmic accompaniment. Throughout his career, Max Roach played with all the greats of the Bebop jazz style. He was able to play with Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Thelonius Monk, Coleman Hawkins, and Bud Powell.27 Roach actually played on most of the recordings of Charlie Parker, including Savoy 1945, an important turning point in recorded Jazz.28 He also played on Miles Davis’s recording Birth of the Cool in 1950 and Jazz at Massey Hall in 1952.29 Max Roach is the percussionist who took Bebop took the next level and is one of the best percussionists there was in Bebop jazz. Miles Davis, born in 1926, came from middle class beginnings and was raised outside of St Louis.30 His mother raised him in an integrated in an integrated suburb and began music through playing trumpet after his father bought him one. Davis’ first teacher encouraged him to play the trumpet unlike Louis Armstrong and Roy Eldridge, using straight, vibratoless tones.31 After a visit by Billy Ecksteins Band to St Louis, which included Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, he applied to the Julliard School of Music in New York City in 1944. Some people say that he only went there to find his idol Charlie Parker.32 The formal teaching at Julliard was not enough for Davis and he ended up 27 All About Jazz seeking out Jazz clubs such as the Savoy and Minton’s. He joined Charlie Parker in live appearances and recordings between 1945 and 1948.33 In 1948, Miles Davis started his own Bebop groups. He participated in a workshop with arranger Gil Evans. This led to collaborations with Gerry Mulligan, John Lewis, and Johnny Carisi, which ended up being recordings. They were recorded for Capitol under Davis’ name and later reissued as Birth of the Cool. 34 Miles Davis career at this point was marred by a heroine addiction. He was unable to perform much and when he did, it was with inferior accompanists, and performed infrequent recordings for labels. Miles Davis did not spearhead the Bebop movement as Parker or Gillespie did, but he was nonetheless very important in the Jazz revolution of the time. Davis’ jazz is some of the best in the 20th century. Thelonius Monk was a Jazz pianist who helped spur bebop during the height of this new revolutionary sound. Monk was born in 1917 in Rocky Mount, North Carolina.35 He grew up with a piano in his house, and that became his first exposure to music at a very young age. He taught himself how to read music when he was five or six by looking over his sisters shoulder as she was rec eiving music lessons.36 Before Monk was ten years old, his family moved to New York City, near the Hudson River. His father left his family after becoming ill and moving back south, leaving Monk’s mom to raise him and his siblings. She was able to get him a piano when he was eleven and he began taking formal lessons at this point.37 He started playing piano in the church choir which is mother sang in, while also being surrounded by the Jazz scene in New York City. In 1939, Monk created his first jazz group.38 Monk’s first notable moment was in 1940 when he was hired at Minton’s Playhouse in Harlem as the house pianist. 39 While at Minton’s he was able to playwith the house quartet, and got to play with Jazz pianist Bud Powell, Roy Eldridge, and Don Byas. In 1944, Theolnius Monk made his first visit to the recording studio as a part of the Coleman Hawkin’s Quartet. 40 In 1944 he also recorded Round About Night, and ended up joining Dizzy Gillespie’s Orchestra and playing on 52nd street at Spotlite Club.41 Then in 1947, Monk made recordings under his own name in a sextet session for Blue Note. Thelonius Monk was falsely arrested in 1951 for narcotics possession.42 He had his cabaret license taken away from him therefore inhibiting him from playing in the Jazz clubs in New York City. He played in out of town gigs and made some records for Prestige Label during this time.43 Then in 1954 he traveled across the Atlantic Ocean to play in the Paris Jazz Festival. While there he recorded his first solo album for Vogue, which would prove to be the way people would remember him, as one of the most imaginative solo pianists. The Bebop era was filled with musicians that are still talked about today as having great influence on 20th century music. Bebop let jazz artists express themselves through extended solos that were not very common yet. Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker really took the scene abruptly and changed the way one can play jazz. This evolution in Jazz evoked fast tempos, asymmetrical phrasing, and rhythm sections expanding their roles in the band. The Bebop era gave listeners great Jazz in an evolutionary style, that people still enjoy today.

A World at Arms: A World War II Book Review Essay

Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This book authored by a great historian Gerhard L. Weinberg is exceptionally written with impressive research. It integrated all the aspects of war – diplomatic, political, economic, and even cultural. In addition, the book has given an overview of how the different theatres of World War II are interconnnected. This paper explores on the author as an expert of this time period, on the book as an account of history, and its impact to the world.   A World at Arms: A World War II Book Review An Overview   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The truth about wars is that many facts would always be concealed and altered. There are numerous instances where events that transpired were never recorded, and many evidences were deliberately destroyed. Therefore weaving the entire tragedy is a very difficult task, and people could only carefully integrate the pieces together, whether they fit or not. World War II is exceptionally difficult for many historians for it is composed of many different theatres, for indeed the world was ultimately at war. The author of â€Å"A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II† Gerhard L. Weinberg has done the next to impossible, to write a single volume that ecompasses all the aspects of war, without sacrificing its value as a piece of literature.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Gerhard L. Weinberg is an expert historian who has enough authority to write about this period of the greatest war in the history of mankind. He has previously written a duely recognized two-volume account of the diplomatic affairs of Adolf Hitler. He is also credited for discovering and editing the second published book of Hitler. Not only is he well versed on this global conflict, he is also largely exposed on extensive archives including those of the Americans, the British, and the Germans which were of great addition to his books. These primary sources characterized his book with much freshness and color in comparison to other works with the same relevance (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This book contains accounts that include all of the six continents. It largely discussed the details of the war, its causes, and its effect on the world. Moreover, its timeline extends from 1939 until the end of war, and even including chapters that reflected the wretched aftermath of this conflict. This is a narrative that dissected the war into the different roles of diplomacy, espionage, land, and sea battles on the total outcome of the Second World War It is a relevant source of the weaponry used, military tactics, naval seacrafts, and even different aircrafts used in various offensives. This book is not confined within the overall military and diplomatic chaos that occurred during those times, for this piece of literature has also explored on the gravity of the situations in the Eastern Front and of the Jewish holocaust (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The book tackled interesting insights that are both amusing and surprising. Such information includes the reduction of American and British troops after the First World War, maintaining only a size comparable to that specified for the Germans by the Treaty of Versailles. Another thought provoking fact is that the British and the French failed to attempt to enter the war. It is basically an interwoven story of different stories. Stories are sometimes characterized by delaying the inevitable,   strategic mistakes, and too much reliance towards neutrality that they ignored, consciously or not, that Hitler really wanted a World War that would give him his Thousand Year Reich (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The book has also given emphasis on the different geographical and logistic significance that affected decisions in warfare. Examples include the impact of the Allied invasion during the landing in Normandy, as the place was a crucial port for the Germans. Southern ports were also seized by Allied troops, and this greatly benefitted their European campaign once they settled their military, naval, and air forces in France. The book also presented Hitler’s â€Å"fixation on blood and loot in the East† (Weinberg, 1994). Moreover, the author elaborated on the different preprations done by the Allied, and how they incorporated necessary deceptions for the enemy. Because of these ploys, Germany opted to invade Russia, as Hitler perceived it as an easier target compared to England (Weinberg, 1994). Purpose or audience for the book   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The primary focus that the author wishes to present to his audience is that this Second World War is brought upon the world by the Germans. They initiated and started this largest conflict in man’s history, which extended across oceans and continents. It is fundamentally an account of how the Germans caused the war’s outbreak in September of 1939 and how the Germans were defeated on the year 1945. This book is especially interesting to those in search of a book with accurate and specific details of World War II (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Even those who do not possess inclination towards historical subjects would enjoy this book presented in a manner apart form the regular academic and scholarly approach. It does not have the dessicated and dragging encyclopedic tone as it was written with much moral passion. This book is of great importance to every historical account of the World War II written after it. Authors couldn ot ever afford to not include this masterpiece in their reference list, as it contains most of the commonly known, the controversial, and even the great secret stories of the war (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The book is an account that has successfully interwoven the different narratives of both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters of war. They were integrated instead of being dealt with separately. This book discussed what others rarely encompass, the histories of America and Britain, the military fronts of Russia and China, and the Italian and Balkan countries. This book does not only cater to those who did not encounter the war, as it is also useful to those who and existed and were very familiar of the events before, during, and after World War II (Weinberg, 1994). Physical and Textual description   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition to the texts, the book also includes an additional 180 pages containing the endnotes, a detailed bibliographic essay, and 23 relevant maps. However, it is quite noticeable that this book lacks graphic illustrations and photographic documentation of the different events of the war. It is very much wanting of a comprehensive presentation of the different key battles that dictated the course of war. The book only contains two pictures major pictures and four historical icons of the war, and they are each located at the book’s cover and spine (Weinberg, 1994). Your reaction and evaluation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a personal assessment, I find the book to be a very interesting and well written documentary of the Second World War I believe that it is a ver powerful piece of narrative that attests to all the impact that this war has brought upon mankind. In the most possible concise way of writing the entire war in a single book, I believe that the author has done a tremendous job in conveying to the reader the importance of every aspect that comprises a war, without being too detailed and boring. Using his simple prose composition in laying out to the reader the causes, the events, and the consequences of the war, Weinberg has successfully integrated the two theaters of war. It is however unfortunate that his concentration is evidently towards the Atlantic Theater, but due to the purpose of writing a single volume, I believe that he has utilized the pages well. Every word in the book is of great importance, and he did not include miniscule details that would only make the text wordy and less interesting to the reader (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The author also demonstrated great knowledge on the subject matter, as he not only related specific details from the war, but also conducted in depth analyses on the different policies imposed to the people existing those times. He also thoroughly presented to the reader the different mistakes and failures of the German military and government, and related the consequences of the blunders the Germans suffered to the Allied victory (Weinberg, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     I can very well agree to the notion that the author wishes to convey. He insisted that the Second World War is a very novel entity, for no other war has reached such vast geographic extent or political and military scale. The book is a very clear narrative, which resembles a compilation of different symposia and lectures. The author used a very comprehensive language that would not intimidate nor discriminate any vocabulary and speech level. It has enough clarity and has successfully deployed its thoughts and arguments without sacrificing the integration of the necessary points to allow a reader understand the entire course of history (Weinberg, 1994). Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is tremendous pain and suffering in the face of destruction brought about by war. Many civilians and soldiers alike are left in social and economic displacement, as the war has robbed them of the promising future they once had prior its outbreak. Those who have not witnessed the ravaging of war do not know its nature. But because of books such as this World War II account, readers are given a glimpse of the events that transpired and the difficulty that everyone encountered. War is a serious business and a complicated operation. And because of Weinberg’s attempt to provide the reader the truth he deserves, we are now equipped with a masterpiece that would tell our generation and the generations to come the truth of what really happened. References Weinberg, G. L. (1994). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. New York:

Theories of Miscommunication

Throughout history people had their media to communicate about matters of public interest. Therefore today mass communication i. e. newspapers, magazines, journals, radio, television, film, video and many more are not new. The history of mass communication however evolved over time where by each culture was dominant during a certain period of time as discussed below. The oral communication culture was dominant during the pre-literate or pre-industrial time, they used the spoken word for communication, nothing was written, no news reports, television, and radio. Everything meant what it was supposed to mean, nothing was like ‘read between the lines. ’ The contrast of oral culture was memory. People relied on their memory, placed a higher value on the present tense. Oral communication is still dominant in areas where the written culture does not exist. Their histories are verbally told through stories and myths. The written and printed communication culture started more or less 6000 years ago with carvings and cave painting, phonetic alphabets have been known for little more than 3000 years ago, and writing as we know it today started way back in 800 BC. After the written word came into existence the spoken word became casual. Writing makes records for the creation of a historical sensibility for example science. In 1450’s a German, Johann Gutenberg invented the printed press. Publishing contributed to the advancement of literacy, publishing contributed to institutions such as schools and by the end of 18th century, printing press had created an entirely new information and mass communication culture. Electronic communication culture is today’s new form of communication, the electronic and digital media dominate the mass communication culture. Today something is true because it’s on the television and internet not because its printed in the newspaper. In the 19th century, photography and film brought about the graphic revolution. Television however is the most dominant communication medium. When defining mass communication one has to define it from different perspectives because of its background and latest developments. For this reason mass communication has to be through the various theoretic perspectives of mass communication which are. Media-materialist, emphasis is on the technical aspects and how technology of medium impacts on the nature of media messages and audiences for example difference between radio and television. Social culturist influence the social factors an media production and reception and functions of social media are emphasized. With the social materialist media and content are mainly seen as reflection on society. Mass communication has got focal points such as communication, medium, message, and recipient, or audience, public nature of mass communication and diverse content of mass communication. A communicator is usually a collective body a group of people responsible for the production of programs, news bulletins, films, newspapers, websites and many more. A medium or a media is usually of technical nature and can involve complicated production and distribution technologies and techniques. Also the channel through which the media content is transmitted and distributed. A message has both concrete and abstract meaning. It is concrete in the form of content being produced for example the newspaper story you can hold and read, a message is abstract in terms of the meaning encoded in the content by the communicator and the meaning the reader,viewer,listener attaches to and derives from the content through their own interpretation of the content. An audience is heterogeneous and usually unknown, without audience there is no media. Other questions related to the focal points in any definition of mass communication are for instance what we mean by ‘mass’ in mass communication? What do we mean by ‘public sphere’, ‘publicness’, and democracy? These questions have been approached from a number of theoretical perspectives. Let’s look at the theories. Julia wood in her book communication theory, explains theories scientific value and that it teaches us how to describe, interpret, understand, evaluate, and predict a phenomenon. It also o provides an over view of the development of a discipline. Its relations with other discipline’s and its future developments. For example effect theories focus on the effect of the media on personal behavior and the developed into a more holistic approach to the effects of the media on society and culture in general. Effect theories started from a behaviorist perspective closely associated with the positivism and behaviorism of the social sciences in the in the first part of the 1900s and then moved onto the more critical approaches presently practiced in the social sciences. Theory teaches us skills of describing, interpreting understanding, evaluating, and predicting a phenomenon such skills can become entrenched in ways we have to deal with our everyday relations such as relationships with colleagues and family members. Goals of theory are to then describe explain understand, predict control and reform. Theory has got building blocks such as: Ontology where we distinguish between two broad views of humanity, determinism and humanism. Epistemology which in philosophical terms is the science of knowledge, we distinguish it between two different schools the objective truth and subjective experience. Purpose according two Wood concerns the purpose of theory, it’s also distinguished between two schools the universalist and situationalists. Focus the fourth building block is concerned with the two broad schools behaviorism and humanism. When evaluating theory Wood 2000:41-47 suggests five criteria; scope, where we have to establish how well and how much a theory describes and explains, Testability, where a theory can be theorized about and investigated by different researchers and they arrive at the same conclusion. Parsimony which refers to simplicity. A theory does not have to be complex. The fourth criterion is utility where theories need to have a practical value in terms of our understanding, controlling and improving of the phenomenon. The goals of mass media are to understand the structures involved and the human agency in influencing these structures. Understanding of the media and its structural relationships will come from different theoretical approaches as discussed below. Different authors have different ways of categorizing theories, Little John (1992:341-374) distinguishes between macro and micro theories, Mcquail(2000:61-16) distinguishes between theories and approaches concerned with the relationships between media and society and between media and culture and a third branch of new theories and approaches concerned with relationships between new media and information society. How we think about the power of media, the media effects on behavior, and the functions of the media in society and so on is usually done from a specific theoretical approach. Below we distinguish between the seven perspectives. The positivistic approach emphasizes on scientific methods on knowledge derived from scientifically processed and analyzed data about a phenomenon. The scientific method requires that all phenomena should be treated in the same way. In research the same rules and same requirements have to be applied and met regardless of the phenomena under investigation. Assumptions in positivism Application of the scientific method involves processes of empirical research which will yield objective findings and will ensure that no subjective elements intervene to influence the validity of the findings. This reasoning rests on the assumption that phenomena’s are governed by universal laws which may be relevant through the application of the scientific method. It comprises of certain fixed steps which must be followed by all researchers and requires use of standardized procedures and techniques. A researcher is only important in the sense that he or she must apply the method correctly. Empiricism is usually related to the natural sciences and is also called scientific method. The concepts of objectivity and measurement are highly valued. Behaviorism concentrates on the experimental analysis of human behavior. To a great degree this method still underlies the analysis of communication problems as executed within the framework of positivistic approaches Functionalism is usually associated with the sociology of Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Talcott Parsons (1902-1979). It concentrates on repetitive observable phenomena or observable indicators of phenomena. Positivism and mass communication. In positivistic research the emphasis is mainly on the efficient working and management of the media, efficient production of media content, functions of the media, media’s effect on people and society. Weaknesses of positivistic approach The weaknesses originated from the work of German sociologist Max Weber 91864-1920) he drew his work from Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) who emphasized the difference between the natural and social sciences. Dilthey maintained that as social researcher would only gain insight into the social world by not distancing himself or herself from it claiming to objective. Human action is not just observable response to stimuli but it is based on interpretation and understanding. Although positivistic research may claim that its findings are objective because of its use of scientific methods, human behavior itself is scientific and based on values intentions, interpretations, understandings, meanings and contents which may differ from person to person group to group and circumstance to circumstance. Critical approach. The development of critical thinking on mass communication has a long history. Critical thinking about mass communication started with what is called mass society theory. Mass society theory was formulated at the turn of 19th century and continued through the middle of 20th century. Began as a reaction to technological innovation that in turn gave rise to industrialization and urbanization. Assumptions Media has the power to influence the minds of average people. Media has corrupt minds. Media can initiate social chaos. Critical theory today Critical theorists today are primarily concerned about medias ideological manipulation of the masses and capitalistic use and misuse of the media by owners to foster capitalized values. We have to describe as closely as possible the ideological instrument of society. These are instruments such as church, the economy, military and media. These instruments are responsible for production, circulation and distribution of ideology. The concept of ideology is therefore the center of the critical approach. Assumptions Media are symbolic forms of expressions for example literature,theatre ,paintings, and many more. Assumes that the media and its different forms and genres like editorial comments can be read as texts. There is a relationship between production conventions and ideologies. There is a close relationship between media politics and the economy. Political economy is an umbrella for all those theories and analytical approaches which seek to understand how economic and political relationships, interests and affiliations determine the nature and functioning of social institutions and the impact or lack of impact of these relationships on social transformation and development. Public sphere. A German philosopher Jurgen Habermas (1979) argues that the modern market oriented media undermine the idea of public sphere as a place for debate where consensus can be reached on the basis of which rational actions can be taken. Criticisms of critical theory. It does not acknowledge the libertarian, informative, educational and democratizing role of media. Does not acknowledge the entertainment value of media for billions of people. Production theory has its foundation in the phenomenology and symbolic interactionism. Phenomenology is a point of departure in the social sciences from the work of the Austrian philosopher Alfred Schutz (1899-1959) Assumptions Reality is not given, but it is a structure of meanings constituted by human beings. The shared world is a pre structured word experienced inter subjectively. Symbolic internationalism centers on the process whereby meaning is socially constructed. Assumptions Reality is not given but created by human beings by virtue of their capacity to give meaning to their experiences. Meaning is embodied in symbols. On both phenomenology and symbolic interactionism emphasis is on meaning and how meaning is constructed. Semiotics is the study of signs and codes. How signs and codes convey meaning. The aim is to sharpen our critical awareness on the ways in which media use signs and codes to reflect represent and imitate aspects of reality with the purpose of conveying a message. Technological determinism This focuses on the technology of mass communication and how such technology determines the nature of mass communication and its role in society and the lives of people. Its aim is that a single cause determines all other aspects of life. Like economic determinism and biological determinism. Criticism against technological determinism. Lacks empirical support, its based on experimental research Does not acknowledge other research Information society approach concerns the role of the new media, information and communication technology in society. Its three broad enquiries are definition, characterization and description of new media, impact of Information communication on society, and policy related to new media. Post structuralist approach. s characterized by new social, economic, technological, global and cultural dynamics. Post modernity society’s structuralism emphasizes on the relationship between assign and its meaning and the role of the producer or author of texts to encode a specific meaning into texts. Post-colonial theory and Afrocentric approach seeks to situate and understand phenomena within the context of the larger and unequal g eo political histories of global and cultural power. Normative theory concerns the perceived and ideal roles of the media which are to play in a society or ought to operate if certain social values are to be observed or attained.